The Vijayanagara Empire – NDA History Notes

Introduction

In the early 14th century CE, the armies of the Delhi Sultanate swept into South India. Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s forces reached as far as the tip of the peninsula, collecting tribute, installing governors, and demonstrating that no part of India was beyond the Sultanate’s reach. But this reach did not last. When the Sultanate’s power began to recede from the south, what emerged in its place was one of the most remarkable empires in Indian history: the Vijayanagara Empire, which for over two centuries stood as the greatest power in southern India and one of the wealthiest states in the world.

The Vijayanagara Empire was founded around 1336 CE by two brothers — Harihara and Bukka — on the southern bank of the Tungabhadra river in present-day Karnataka. The city they built became one of the most magnificent urban centres of the medieval world. At its height, it may have been one of the largest cities on earth, larger than Rome, larger than Constantinople, larger than any city in Europe of that time. Travellers who visited described it with amazement. A Portuguese merchant wrote that it was as large as Rome and very beautiful. A Persian diplomat called it the best-provided city in the world.

The empire lasted for over three hundred years across four dynasties. Its greatest moment came under Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529 CE) — a ruler who combined military genius with literary brilliance, who defeated every enemy he faced, and who presided over a golden age of Telugu culture that produced some of the finest poetry in any Indian language. Its darkest moment came at the Battle of Talikota in 1565 CE — when a coalition of Deccan Sultanates defeated the Vijayanagara army, killed its commander, and then systematically destroyed the magnificent capital city. The ruins at Hampi — today a UNESCO World Heritage Site — are what remain.

NDA has tested this chapter on eight different facts across many years. The founding of the empire by Harihara and Bukka, Krishnadevaraya’s military victories and cultural patronage, Abdur Razzaq’s visit during Devaraya II’s reign, Domingo Paes’s visit during Krishnadevaraya’s reign, the Amara-Nayaka administrative system, the Mahanavami Dibba, and the Battle of Talikota have all appeared in past papers.

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1. Historical Background — The Founding of the Empire

South India in the early 14th century CE was a region under threat. The Delhi Sultanate had demonstrated that even the far south was vulnerable to northern military power. At the same time, a new regional power was rising in the Deccan, the Bahmani Kingdom, founded in 1347 CE by Alauddin Bahman Shah. The Bahmani Kingdom controlled the central Deccan and would be Vijayanagara’s primary rival for the next century and a half. Between these two threats — the northern Sultanate and the Deccan Bahmani power — the people of South India needed a new centre of political authority and cultural protection.

That centre emerged on the banks of the Tungabhadra river in present-day Karnataka. Two brothers — Harihara and Bukka of the Sangama dynasty — founded the Vijayanagara Empire around 1336 CE. [NDA 2013-II] According to tradition, they were guided in this endeavour by the sage Vidyaranya, who convinced them to establish an independent Hindu kingdom. The name Vijayanagara means the City of Victory.

The Krishna–Tungabhadra Doab

The most strategically important geographic zone in the history of the Vijayanagara Empire was the Krishna–Tungabhadra Doab, the fertile land between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers. This region was the richest agricultural land in the Deccan and also the main corridor connecting the northern Deccan to the southern peninsula. Control of the Doab was essential for any power that wanted to dominate the region. The Vijayanagara Empire and the Bahmani Kingdom fought repeatedly over this zone. Most of the major wars between the two powers were caused by competition for the Doab.

The Bahmani Kingdom

The Bahmani Kingdom (1347–1527 CE) was the major Deccan power that contested Vijayanagara’s expansion northward. At its height, it controlled much of the central Deccan from its capital at Gulbarga (later moved to Bidar). The Bahmani Kingdom eventually fragmented into five successor states, the Deccan Sultanates, which would form the coalition that destroyed Vijayanagara at the Battle of Talikota in 1565 CE.

[Image Suggestion: Map of the Vijayanagara Empire at its peak under Krishnadevaraya, showing the empire’s extent, the Krishna-Tungabhadra Doab, and the locations of the Deccan Sultanates to the north]

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2. The Four Dynasties

The Vijayanagara Empire was not ruled by a single dynasty from beginning to end. Power passed through four successive dynasties over the course of the empire’s history.

Dynasty	Period	Key Feature
Sangama	1336–1485 CE	Founded the empire. Harihara and Bukka as co-founders. Devaraya II as the most powerful Sangama ruler.
Saluva	1485–1505 CE	Brief interregnum. Restored stability after Sangama decline.
Tuluva	1505–1570 CE	Peak of the empire under Krishnadevaraya. Greatest military and cultural achievements.
Aravidu	1570–1646 CE	Decline after the Battle of Talikota. Empire survived in reduced form.

Timeline of the Vijayanagara Empire

1336 CE  →  Vijayanagara Empire founded — Harihara and Bukka, Sangama dynasty
1347 CE  →  Bahmani Kingdom founded — primary rival from the Deccan
1424 CE  →  Devaraya II comes to power — most powerful Sangama ruler
1443 CE  →  Abdur Razzaq visits — describes a magnificent city [NDA 2015-I]
1485 CE  →  Sangama dynasty ends — Saluva dynasty begins
1505 CE  →  Tuluva dynasty begins
1509 CE  →  Krishnadevaraya comes to power — peak of the empire
1565 CE  →  Battle of Talikota — capital destroyed [NDA 2017-I]
1646 CE  →  Aravidu dynasty ends — Vijayanagara Empire effectively concludes

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3. The Sangama Dynasty — Devaraya I and Devaraya II

The Sangama dynasty ruled the Vijayanagara Empire from its founding until 1485 CE. After the co-founders Harihara and Bukka, the most important rulers of this dynasty were Devaraya I and Devaraya II.

Devaraya I ruled in the early 15th century CE. He built a dam across the Tungabhadra river to bring more land under irrigation and improve agricultural productivity in the Vijayanagara heartland. This was a major infrastructure achievement that extended the agricultural base of the empire.

Devaraya II (ruled approximately 1424–1446 CE) was the most powerful ruler of the Sangama dynasty after the founders. He extended the empire’s power, maintained the Vijayanagara state against Bahmani pressure, and presided over a prosperous and well-governed kingdom. It was during his reign that the Persian traveller Abdur Razzaq visited the Vijayanagara capital in 1443 CE. Abdur Razzaq described Vijayanagara as one of the most magnificent cities he had ever seen, with teeming markets, prosperous residents, and a court of extraordinary splendour. [NDA 2015-I]

Students sometimes confuse which traveller visited which ruler. Abdur Razzaq visited during Devaraya II’s reign in 1443 CE — not during Krishnadevaraya’s reign. The two travellers belong to two completely different rulers. [NDA 2015-I]

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4. Krishnadevaraya — The Greatest Ruler

Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529 CE) was the greatest ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire and one of the most remarkable figures in all of medieval Indian history. His reign represented the absolute peak of the empire, militarily, administratively, and culturally. He was a brilliant commander, an able administrator, a generous patron, and a gifted poet all in one person.

Military Achievements

Krishnadevaraya was an exceptionally effective military commander. He launched a series of campaigns that extended Vijayanagara’s power to its greatest territorial extent. He defeated the Bahmani Sultans — who had been Vijayanagara’s primary rivals since the empire’s founding — and then turned on the individual successor states that had emerged from the Bahmani fragmentation. He defeated the Sultans of Bijapur and Golconda in succession. [NDA 2014-I] He also campaigned successfully into Odisha in the northeast.

Krishnadevaraya belonged to the Tuluva dynasty — the third of the four Vijayanagara dynasties — not the Sangama dynasty. The Sangama dynasty had ended in 1485 CE, well before his reign began.

Cultural Achievements — Amuktamalyada and the Ashtadiggajas

Krishnadevaraya was not only a soldier. He was also a gifted writer and one of the greatest patrons of literature in Indian history. He composed the Telugu work Amuktamalyada — a long poem about the Tamil Vaishnava saint Andal and her devotion to Vishnu. The Amuktamalyada is considered one of the five great Telugu epics (Panchakavyas) and is a masterwork of Telugu literature. [NDA 2018-II]

He patronised the Ashtadiggajas — the eight great poets who adorned his court. The word Ashtadiggaja means eight elephants supporting the directions, a traditional metaphor for eight pillars of greatness. These eight poets produced some of the finest works in Telugu literature under Krishnadevaraya’s generous patronage. [NDA 2018-II]

Poet	Key Work / Note
Allasani Peddana	Greatest of the Ashtadiggajas. Called Andhra Kavita Pitamaha (grandfather of Telugu poetry). Wrote Manucharitra.
Nandi Timmana	Wrote Parijathapaharanam. Called Mukku Timmana (Timmana of the nose) by Krishnadevaraya.
Tenali Ramakrishna	Famous for his extraordinary wit and literary brilliance.
Dhurjati	Composed devotional works on Shiva.
Madayyagari Mallana	—
Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra	—
Pingali Surana	—
Ramarajabhushana	—

The Ashtadiggajas were Telugu poets — not Kannada poets. Students sometimes assume they were Kannada because the Vijayanagara capital was in Karnataka. But Krishnadevaraya himself wrote in Telugu, and the Ashtadiggajas were Telugu poets whose work defines the golden age of Telugu literature. [NDA 2018-II]

The Amuktamalyada was written by Krishnadevaraya himself — not by Allasani Peddana or any other court poet. Krishnadevaraya was both the ruler who patronised the eight poets and a distinguished poet in his own right. [NDA 2018-II]

Domingo Paes — Portuguese Visitor

The Portuguese traveller Domingo Paes visited the Vijayanagara Empire during Krishnadevaraya’s reign. [NDA 2023-I] He left a detailed and vivid account of the empire’s prosperity, its military organisation, and the magnificent Mahanavami festival. His description of Krishnadevaraya himself is among the most admiring accounts of any medieval Indian ruler by a foreign observer.

★ IMPORTANT Two travellers. Two rulers. Never confuse them. Abdur Razzaq (Persian) visited during Devaraya II’s reign in 1443 CE. [NDA 2015-I] Domingo Paes (Portuguese) visited during Krishnadevaraya’s reign. [NDA 2023-I] Razzaq = Devaraya II. Paes = Krishnadevaraya.

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5. The Amara-Nayaka System

The Amara-Nayaka system was the most distinctive and most important administrative feature of the Vijayanagara Empire. [NDA 2016-I] Understanding it is essential for understanding both how the empire was governed and why it eventually declined.

The word Amara means immortal or undying — it was a title of honour given to these military commanders. A Nayaka was a military commander who had been assigned a territory to administer. The system worked as follows.

The Vijayanagara king divided his territory into a large number of units. Each unit was assigned to a Nayaka. The Nayaka collected all the revenue from his assigned territory. From this revenue, he maintained his own army, administered local justice, and managed public works in his territory. He was required to send a fixed tribute to the Vijayanagara king and to present himself with his troops whenever the king called for military service. In exchange for performing these duties, the Nayaka enjoyed considerable local autonomy.

The Amara-Nayaka system gave Vijayanagara considerable military strength. The king could call on the forces of all his Nayakas simultaneously. But it also carried the seeds of decline. Over time, the Nayakas became increasingly independent. They built their own power bases, formed their own alliances, and began to treat their territories as hereditary possessions rather than royal assignments. This growing independence meant that the king could not always rely on his Nayakas in a military crisis, a weakness that became fatally apparent at the Battle of Talikota.

The Amara-Nayaka system was not the same as the Mughal mansabdari system. While both involved assigning revenue territories in exchange for military service, the Nayakas had considerably greater local autonomy than Mughal mansabdars. And crucially, their assignments became increasingly hereditary over time.

Feature	Iqta (Delhi Sultanate)	Mansabdari (Mughal)	Amara-Nayaka (Vijayanagara)
Assignee	Muqti / Wali	Mansabdar	Nayaka
What is assigned	Revenue territory (iqta)	Revenue territory (jagir) or cash	Revenue territory
Military obligation	Yes	Yes	Yes
Hereditary	No	No	Increasingly yes over time
Local autonomy	Limited	Limited	Considerable

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6. The Mahanavami Dibba

The Mahanavami Dibba was one of the most important structures in the Vijayanagara royal capital. [NDA 2021-I] It was a large elevated stone platform, rising approximately twelve metres above the surrounding terrain, located near the royal enclosure of the capital city.

The Mahanavami Dibba was used by the king to watch the celebrations of the Mahanavami festival — the great nine-day royal festival that was the most important ceremonial event in the Vijayanagara calendar. [NDA 2021-I] During the Mahanavami, the king sat on this platform and observed an elaborate programme of celebrations that included military parades, wrestling matches, elephant fights, horse displays, and performances of music and dance. The festival was both a religious observance and a political demonstration, showing the king’s power, the strength of his army, and the prosperity of his court to all who attended.

The Mahanavami Dibba was a ceremonial viewing platform — not a temple or a religious structure. Students sometimes describe it as a place of worship. It was not. It was an elevated stage from which the king watched the festival unfold below him. It still stands at the Hampi ruins today and is one of the most important surviving structures of the ancient capital. [NDA 2021-I]

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7. Economy and Trade

The Vijayanagara Empire was one of the most prosperous states in the medieval world. Its economy rested on three foundations: agriculture, trade, and military strength.

Agriculture and Irrigation

The Vijayanagara kings invested heavily in irrigation infrastructure. They built large tanks (reservoirs) and canals across their territory to extend agriculture into previously dry areas. The dam built by Devaraya I across the Tungabhadra was one of the earliest of these projects. These irrigation works transformed the agricultural productivity of the Vijayanagara heartland and provided the food surplus that supported the empire’s large population and military.

The Horse Trade with the Portuguese

Horses were the most important military commodity in medieval India. A powerful cavalry was essential for any army that hoped to hold its own against the Deccan Sultanates. Vijayanagara imported large numbers of warhorses, primarily from Arabia and Persia, through the Portuguese traders who had established themselves on the western coast of India from the early 16th century onward. The Portuguese controlled the horse trade because they controlled the sea routes from the Persian Gulf to the Indian coast. This gave the Portuguese a strategically important commercial position in the Vijayanagara Empire — and the Vijayanagara kings were willing to pay well for horses, making the horse trade one of the most lucrative Portuguese commercial activities in India.

Exports and Coinage

Vijayanagara exported textiles, spices, precious stones, and iron to Arabian and Portuguese merchants. The empire used gold coins called pagodas (also called Varaha coins) — among the finest coins of the medieval Indian world. The prosperity of Vijayanagara commerce is confirmed by the accounts of foreign travellers who described its markets as among the most well-stocked and busy they had ever seen.

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8. Architecture and Art — Hampi

The ruins of the Vijayanagara capital at Hampi in present-day Karnataka were declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1986. They preserve the remains of one of the greatest medieval cities in the world, spread across a dramatic landscape of boulders, hills, and the Tungabhadra river.

The Vijayanagara Architectural Style

The Vijayanagara architectural tradition developed out of the South Indian Dravidian temple style — characterised by tall gopurams (gateway towers) and intricately carved mandapas (pillared halls). The Vijayanagara builders elaborated on this tradition, creating temples of extraordinary scale and decorative richness. In their secular buildings, palaces, stables, and pavilions, they incorporated Indo-Islamic architectural elements such as domes and arches, reflecting the cultural exchange with the Deccan Sultanates.

Key Monuments at Hampi

Monument	Significance
Vittala Temple complex	The finest example of Vijayanagara architecture. Famous for its intricately carved musical pillars and the Stone Chariot (the Garuda shrine — a stone representation of a chariot dedicated to Garuda, Vishnu’s vehicle). One of the most iconic images of Vijayanagara art.
Virupaksha Temple	One of the oldest continuously functioning temples in India. Predates the Vijayanagara period but was greatly expanded under Vijayanagara rulers. Dedicated to Shiva as Virupaksha.
Hazara Rama Temple	The royal family’s private temple. Decorated with detailed narrative carvings of scenes from the Ramayana across its walls. Used exclusively by the royal family and court.
Lotus Mahal	Elegant secular pavilion. Shows Indo-Islamic architectural influences. Part of the zenana (women’s) enclosure.
Elephant Stables	Long structure with domed chambers used to house the royal elephants. Shows Islamic architectural influence in dome design.
Mahanavami Dibba	Large elevated platform for royal ceremonies. [NDA 2021-I]

[Image Suggestion: The Stone Chariot at the Vittala Temple, Hampi — showing the intricately carved stone chariot (Garuda shrine) with the Tungabhadra river landscape behind it, one of the most iconic images of Vijayanagara architecture]

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9. Foreign Travellers and Their Accounts

Several foreign travellers visited the Vijayanagara Empire and left important accounts that historians use as primary sources. For NDA students, the most important distinction is between Abdur Razzaq (who visited during Devaraya II’s reign) and Domingo Paes (who visited during Krishnadevaraya’s reign). These two travellers are directly tested and are often confused with each other.

Traveller	Origin	Visited During	Key Account	NDA Relevance
Abdur Razzaq	Persia	Devaraya II’s reign (1443 CE) [NDA 2015-I]	Described Vijayanagara as magnificent and the best-provided city in the world.	Directly tested — must know the ruler he visited.
Nicolo Conti	Italy	Around the same period as Abdur Razzaq	Left an account of the empire’s size and prosperity.	Educational context only.
Domingo Paes	Portugal	Krishnadevaraya’s reign [NDA 2023-I]	Detailed account of the empire’s prosperity, military, and the Mahanavami festival. Admiring description of Krishnadevaraya personally.	Directly tested — must know the ruler he visited.
Fernao Nuniz	Portugal	After Krishnadevaraya’s reign	Important Portuguese chronicle of the empire.	Educational context only.
Duarte Barbosa	Portugal	Early 16th century	Account of trade and society in the Vijayanagara region.	Awareness level only.

Abdur Razzaq did not visit during Krishnadevaraya’s reign. Domingo Paes did not visit during Devaraya II’s reign. Razzaq = Devaraya II. Paes = Krishnadevaraya. [NDA 2015-I, NDA 2023-I]

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10. The Battle of Talikota — 1565 CE

The Battle of Talikota in 1565 CE was the most catastrophic military defeat in the history of the Vijayanagara Empire, and one of the most consequential battles in the history of South India. [NDA 2017-I]

The Background

By the mid-16th century, the Bahmani Kingdom had fragmented into five successor states, collectively called the Deccan Sultanates. These five states were Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, Golconda, and Berar. They had been quarrelling among themselves for decades. But in 1565 CE, they set aside their differences and formed a coalition against their common enemy, the Vijayanagara Empire.

The Battle

The combined Deccan Sultanate forces met the Vijayanagara army at Talikota (also called Raksasi-Tangadi) on 23 January 1565 CE. The Vijayanagara army was commanded by Aliya Rama Raya — the most powerful figure at the Vijayanagara court at the time. Aliya Rama Raya was an experienced general who had successfully played the Deccan Sultanates against each other for years. But at Talikota, the unified coalition proved too strong. The battle turned decisively against Vijayanagara. Aliya Rama Raya was captured and killed on the battlefield.

The Destruction of the Capital

After their victory, the Deccan coalition forces marched on the Vijayanagara capital and systematically destroyed it. They burned the buildings, looted the wealth, demolished the temples, and left the great city in ruins. The destruction took months. When it was over, Vijayanagara, once one of the largest and most magnificent cities in the world, was an abandoned ruin. It was never rebuilt or inhabited again. The ruins at Hampi today are the remains of this once-magnificent capital. [NDA 2017-I]

Feature of the Battle	Detail
Year	1565 CE [NDA 2017-I]
Alternative name	Battle of Raksasi-Tangadi
Vijayanagara commander	Aliya Rama Raya — killed on the battlefield [NDA 2017-I]
Enemy forces	Combined forces of the five Deccan Sultanates — Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, Golconda, and Berar
Outcome	Vijayanagara army defeated. Aliya Rama Raya killed. Capital city destroyed and never rebuilt. [NDA 2017-I]

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11. Decline and Legacy

The Battle of Talikota did not immediately end the Vijayanagara state. The empire continued under the Aravidu dynasty in a diminished form until around 1646 CE. But the great capital was gone, the empire’s military power was broken, and the Nayakas, who had already been growing increasingly independent, now effectively became autonomous rulers in their own right.

The long-term legacy of the Vijayanagara Empire is nonetheless profound. It preserved and enriched the Telugu and Kannada literary traditions during a period when much of northern India was under Islamic political authority. It patronised the construction of some of the finest Hindu temples in South India. The Nayaka kingdoms that succeeded it in Tamil Nadu, Andhra, and Karnataka carried on the Vijayanagara cultural and architectural traditions for another century. And as a symbol of South Indian Hindu political and cultural achievement, the Vijayanagara Empire occupies a central place in the historical memory of the region.

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