Classical India: Kushanas, Guptas and Harshavardhana – NDA History Notes

After the Mauryan Empire collapsed around 185 BCE, northern India broke into many smaller kingdoms. For nearly five centuries, no single ruler controlled the subcontinent the way Ashoka had. Then, in the 4th century CE, a new dynasty rose from the Gangetic plains and built an empire that would be remembered as the golden age of Indian civilisation. Between the end of the Mauryas and the rise of this new empire, several remarkable powers ruled different parts of India. Each one left its mark on Indian culture, religion, art, and trade. This chapter covers three of the most important: the Kushanas, the Guptas, and Harshavardhana.

The Kushanas came from Central Asia. They built an empire that stretched from Afghanistan through northwestern India and deep into the Gangetic plains. Their greatest ruler, Kanishka, was one of the most powerful kings of his age. He patronised Buddhism, held one of the most important Buddhist Councils in history, and presided over a remarkable flowering of art in the Gandhara region. Under the Kushanas, the first human images of the Buddha were created, blending Indian religious themes with Greek and Roman artistic traditions.

The Guptas built something different. Their empire was not just a military achievement. It was a cultural renaissance. Under Gupta rulers, particularly Samudragupta and Chandragupta II, Sanskrit literature reached its greatest heights. The poet Kalidasa wrote works that are still studied today. The mathematician Aryabhata made discoveries that changed the understanding of numbers and astronomy. The Gupta period is called the Golden Age of India for good reason.

After the Guptas declined under the pressure of Hun invasions, northern India fragmented again. Then Harshavardhana rose to power in the early 7th century CE and briefly reunited a large part of the north. The Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited India during his reign and left behind a detailed account of what he saw.

NDA has tested this chapter heavily. The Prayaga Prashasti and its author Harishena, the official language of the Gupta period, the Prabhavati-Vakataka marriage alliance, the themes and technique of Ajanta paintings, the Silk Routes and their goods, the Rabatak inscription’s language, Xuanzang’s written work, the author of the Mrichchhakatika, and Yashovarman as ruler of Kannauj have all appeared in past papers.

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1. The Post-Mauryan Political Landscape

When the Mauryan Empire ended around 185 BCE, it did not fall to a single powerful enemy. It fragmented from within. The later Mauryan rulers were weak. The vast empire became impossible to govern without strong leadership at the centre. Provincial governors and military commanders began to assert their independence. Within a few decades, the unified empire that Chandragupta and Ashoka had built had broken into many separate kingdoms.

Three major successor powers emerged. In the Gangetic plains, the Shunga dynasty replaced the Mauryas. The Shungas were Brahmin rulers who reversed some of Ashoka’s Buddhist-friendly policies. In the Deccan and central India, the Satavahana dynasty established itself as the dominant power, important patrons of Buddhism and great traders who connected the Deccan with the ports of the western coast. In the northwest, the Indo-Greeks established a series of kingdoms that blended Greek and Indian political and cultural traditions in a unique way.

This period of fragmentation lasted for several centuries. But it was not a period of stagnation. New ideas, new artistic traditions, and new trade connections developed across the subcontinent. The stage was being set for the next great empire.

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2. The Indo-Greeks and Their Contribution

The Indo-Greeks were the descendants of Greek settlers who had remained in the northwest after Alexander’s departure. They established several kingdoms in the region of present-day Afghanistan and northwestern Pakistan from the 2nd century BCE onward. Many Indo-Greek rulers converted to Buddhism. The most famous of them, King Menander (Milinda), is remembered in Indian history through the Buddhist text Milindapanha, studied in Chapter A3.

The most important contribution of the Indo-Greeks to Indian history was in the field of coinage. The Indo-Greeks were the first rulers in India to issue coins bearing the names and images of rulers. These portrait coins were a Greek tradition that the Indo-Greeks brought to India. Before them, Indian coins, including the Mauryan punch-marked coins, carried no ruler portraits. The Indo-Greek portrait coin tradition was then adopted and developed by the Kushanas who followed them.

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3. The Kushana Empire

The Kushanas were a Central Asian people who migrated southward and eventually established one of the largest empires of the ancient world. At its height, the Kushana Empire stretched from Bactria (present-day Afghanistan) through northwestern India and down into the Gangetic plains, reaching as far east as Varanasi. This empire sat at the crossroads of four great civilisations (India, China, Rome, and Persia) and it played a crucial role in connecting them through trade and cultural exchange.

Kushana Ruler	Period	Key Contribution
Kujula Kadphises	1st century CE	Founded the Kushana Empire. United the Kushana clans.
Vima Kadphises	Late 1st century CE	Extended the empire into northwestern India. Issued the first Kushana gold coins.
Kanishka	Approximately 78–103 CE	Greatest Kushana ruler. Fourth Buddhist Council. Gandhara art. Rabatak inscription.
Huvishka	After Kanishka	Continued Kushana rule. Maintained the empire’s extent.
Vasudeva I	Late 2nd–early 3rd century CE	Last major Kushana ruler. Empire began to decline after his reign.

Kanishka — The Greatest Kushana Ruler

Kanishka was the most powerful and most historically significant of all Kushana rulers. He was a great military commander who expanded the empire significantly. But he is remembered above all for two things: his patronage of Buddhism and his role in the development of Buddhist art.

Kanishka convened the Fourth Buddhist Council at Kundalvana in Kashmir. This council compiled commentaries on Buddhist texts and led to the formal development of Mahayana Buddhism. Kanishka was a major patron of the Gandhara school of art, which produced the first human images of the Buddha under strong Greco-Roman influence.

Kanishka was not a contemporary of the Buddha. Kanishka ruled in the 1st to 2nd century CE. The Buddha lived in the 6th to 5th century BCE. They were separated by approximately six to seven centuries.

The Rabatak Inscription

The Rabatak inscription is an important Kushana record found in Rabatak, Afghanistan. It records the achievements and lineage of Kanishka. The Rabatak inscription was written in the Bactrian language. [NDA 2023-I]

Students sometimes guess Gandhari because the Gandhara region is geographically close. That reasoning is incorrect. Bactrian was the administrative language of the Kushana court. The Rabatak inscription was written in Bactrian — not Gandhari. [NDA 2023-I]

Kushana Coins

The Kushanas continued the portrait coin tradition of the Indo-Greeks. They also issued the first gold coins in India. [NDA 2014-II] This was a significant development. Gold coins indicated a prosperous economy and strong trade connections, particularly with Rome, which paid for Indian goods in gold.

The relationship between these two coin facts is important. The Indo-Greeks issued the first portrait coins in India. The Kushanas issued the first gold coins in India. These are two separate achievements by two different dynasties.

Kushana Art — Mathura and Gandhara

Large statues of Kushana rulers have been found near Mathura in present-day Uttar Pradesh. [NDA 2023-I] These monumental sculptures show the Kushana rulers in a distinctive Central Asian style, standing upright, wearing boots and heavy coats.

The Gandhara school of art flourished under Kushana patronage. It developed in the Gandhara region, present-day northwestern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan. Its defining features are its strong Greco-Roman influence and its characteristic rich carving, elaborate ornamentation, and complex symbolism. [NDA 2011-I] Gandhara Buddhas show wavy hair arranged in the Greek manner, thin robes that cling like Roman togas, and realistic facial features modelled on Hellenistic sculpture.

Feature	Detail
Location	Northwestern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan
Patronage	Kushana dynasty, especially under Kanishka
Influence	Strong Greco-Roman influence [NDA 2011-I]
Key features	Rich carving, elaborate ornamentation, complex symbolism [NDA 2011-I]
Significance	Produced the first human images of the Buddha

[Image Suggestion: A Gandhara Buddha sculpture showing Greco-Roman artistic features — wavy hair, draped toga-like robe — alongside a Kushana ruler statue from Mathura]

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4. The Gupta Empire — Foundation

After centuries of political fragmentation, northern India was reunited under a new dynasty in the 4th century CE. The Gupta dynasty rose from the Gangetic plains and built an empire that would be remembered as the greatest cultural achievement of ancient India. The Gupta period is called the Golden Age of India — a time when Sanskrit literature, mathematics, astronomy, art, and philosophy all reached remarkable heights simultaneously.

The Gupta dynasty was founded by Chandragupta I around 319–320 CE. This date is significant because it marks the beginning of the Gupta Era — a calendar system used for dating events in the Gupta period. Chandragupta I adopted the grand title Maharajadhiraja, King of Kings, signalling the ambition of the new dynasty. He consolidated his power through a strategic marriage alliance with the Lichchhavi clan, one of the most powerful families of the Gangetic plains.

Gupta Ruler	Period	Key Achievement
Chandragupta I	Around 319–355 CE	Founded the Gupta dynasty. Gupta Era begins 319–320 CE. Title Maharajadhiraja.
Samudragupta	Around 335–375 CE	Greatest military ruler. Campaigns across north and south India. Prayaga Prashasti.
Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya)	Around 375–415 CE	Peak of the Golden Age. Defeated the Shakas. Navaratnas. Fa Hien’s visit.
Kumaragupta I	Around 415–455 CE	Founded Nalanda University. Maintained the empire.
Skandagupta	Around 455–467 CE	Repelled the first Hun invasions. Last powerful Gupta ruler.

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5. Samudragupta — The Napoleon of India

Samudragupta is considered the greatest military ruler of the Gupta dynasty. He conducted campaigns across virtually the entire Indian subcontinent, defeating kings in the north, marching deep into the south, and receiving tribute from rulers on the borders of his empire. A European historian later compared him to Napoleon Bonaparte, earning him the title Napoleon of India.

Samudragupta was not only a conqueror. He was also a musician and a patron of learning. His coins show him playing the veena, an unusual image for an ancient king and a sign of his artistic sensibility. He was deeply interested in literature and scholarship and supported learned men at his court.

The Prayaga Prashasti

The primary source for Samudragupta’s reign is the Prayaga Prashasti — a long eulogy inscribed on a stone pillar. The Prayaga Prashasti was composed by Harishena, who was Samudragupta’s court poet and minister. [NDA 2022-II] It describes Samudragupta’s military campaigns in detail, lists the rulers he defeated, and praises his personal qualities as a scholar, musician, and king.

The Prayaga Prashasti is inscribed on the Allahabad Pillar. This pillar carries the records of two of the greatest rulers of ancient India on a single stone monument. It was originally erected by Ashoka as one of his famous monolithic pillars during the Mauryan period. Samudragupta’s court poet Harishena later had the Prayaga Prashasti inscribed on the same pillar.

Samudragupta did not write the Prayaga Prashasti himself. He was its subject, not its author. It was composed by his court poet Harishena. [NDA 2022-II]

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6. Chandragupta II — Vikramaditya

Chandragupta II was the son of Samudragupta and the third major Gupta ruler. He is known by the title Vikramaditya, meaning Sun of Valour. His reign represents the absolute peak of the Gupta Golden Age. Under Chandragupta II, the Gupta Empire reached its greatest territorial extent, Sanskrit culture reached its highest expression, and India’s international trade connections were at their most prosperous.

Military Achievements

Chandragupta II’s most important military achievement was the defeat of the Western Kshatrapas (the Shakas), who had controlled the western coastal region of India for centuries. By defeating the Shakas, Chandragupta II gained control of the wealthy western ports that connected India to the trade routes of the Roman Empire. This conquest significantly increased Gupta prosperity.

The Vakataka Alliance

Chandragupta II strengthened his position through strategic marriage alliances. His daughter Prabhavati was married to Rudrasena II of the Vakataka dynasty, a powerful kingdom in the Deccan. [NDA 2009-II] This alliance gave the Guptas a powerful ally in the south and extended their political influence beyond their direct territorial control.

This is one of the most directly tested traps in this chapter. Prabhavati was married to Rudrasena II of the Vakataka dynasty, not to an Ahom prince. The Ahom kingdom was in northeastern India. The Vakataka kingdom was in the Deccan. These are completely different regions. [NDA 2009-II]

The Official Language

The official language of the Gupta period was Sanskrit. [NDA 2009-II] This was a deliberate choice that reflected the Gupta rulers’ patronage of Brahminic culture and Sanskrit learning. Under Gupta patronage, Sanskrit literature reached its greatest heights.

Ashoka had used Prakrit in his edicts during the Mauryan period. The Guptas reversed this and made Sanskrit the language of royal administration and literary expression. The official language of the Gupta period was Sanskrit — not Prakrit. [NDA 2009-II]

The Navaratnas

The court of Chandragupta II was famous for its Navaratnas — the nine gems. These were nine brilliant scholars, poets, scientists, and artists who adorned his court. The most famous of the Navaratnas was the poet Kalidasa. Others included the astronomer Varahamihira and the physician Dhanvantari.

Fa Hien’s Visit

The Chinese Buddhist monk Fa Hien (also written Faxian) visited India during the reign of Chandragupta II, approximately between 399 and 414 CE. He came to collect Buddhist scriptures and visit Buddhist holy sites. His account describes a prosperous and well-governed country where people lived comfortably and the king ruled without harsh punishments.

The Iron Pillar of Mehrauli

The Iron Pillar of Mehrauli stands in the courtyard of the Qutb complex in present-day Delhi. It was erected during the Gupta period and is traditionally associated with Chandragupta II. The pillar is approximately seven metres tall and weighs over six tonnes. What makes it remarkable is that it has stood for over fifteen hundred years with almost no rust. This extraordinary rust resistance is a testament to the advanced metallurgical knowledge of Gupta craftsmen. The pillar carries a Sanskrit inscription recording the military achievements of a king named Chandra, identified as Chandragupta II.

The Udayagiri Caves

The Udayagiri Caves are located near Vidisha in present-day Madhya Pradesh. They were excavated during the reign of Chandragupta II and contain some of the finest examples of Gupta-period rock-cut art. The most famous panel here is the Varaha panel — a monumental carving showing Vishnu in his boar incarnation rescuing the earth goddess Bhudevi from the cosmic ocean. The Varaha panel is one of the largest and most powerful sculptural compositions of the Gupta period.

Key Fact	Detail
Title	Vikramaditya — Sun of Valour
Military achievement	Defeated the Western Kshatrapas (Shakas)
Marriage alliance	Daughter Prabhavati married Rudrasena II of the Vakataka dynasty [NDA 2009-II]
Official language	Sanskrit [NDA 2009-II]
Court scholars	Navaratnas — nine gems, including Kalidasa and Varahamihira
Chinese visitor	Fa Hien — around 399 to 414 CE
Iron Pillar	Mehrauli, Delhi — associated with Chandragupta II

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7. Gupta Administration and Society

The Gupta Empire was governed differently from the Mauryan Empire. The Mauryan system was highly centralised. Every part of the empire was directly administered by officials appointed by the emperor. The Gupta system was more decentralised and incorporated feudal elements. Local kings and chieftains who acknowledged Gupta supremacy were allowed to rule their own territories with considerable autonomy. They paid tribute and provided military service but were not directly managed by Gupta officials in the way Mauryan provinces had been.

Fa Hien described Gupta society as prosperous and generally well-ordered. He noted that people were free and that the king did not use capital punishment or mutilation as penalties. However, Fa Hien also noted that untouchables, the lowest social group, were required to strike a piece of wood as they walked through towns to warn others of their approach. This detail reveals the harsh social reality that existed alongside the cultural brilliance of the Golden Age.

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8. Gupta Economy and the Silk Routes

The Gupta period was one of the most prosperous in Indian economic history. Agriculture remained the foundation of the economy. But it was trade, both within India and with the wider world, that gave the Gupta period its remarkable wealth and cultural vitality.

Internal Trade and Silk Production

Within India, certain cities became famous for specific crafts and products. Varanasi was the best producer of silk cloth during the Gupta period. [NDA 2012-II] Varanasi silk was famous across India and was exported along the trade routes to distant markets. Other important Gupta-period products included cotton textiles, spices, precious stones, and iron goods.

The Silk Routes

The Silk Routes were the network of land and sea trade routes that connected India, Central Asia, China, and the Mediterranean world. They were not a single road but a series of overlapping routes across mountains, deserts, and oceans. The Kushana and Gupta periods were both important phases in the history of the Silk Routes.

NDA tested the Silk Routes with a four-part statement question in 2024-I. Every one of these facts must be known precisely.

The Silk Routes carried Chinese silk westward — toward Central Asia, Persia, and the Mediterranean. They did NOT carry east-bound European silk. The name refers to Chinese silk moving west, not European silk moving east. [NDA 2024-I]

The Silk Routes existed before the Christian Era, meaning they were already functioning before the birth of Christ. They continued to thrive until the 15th century CE, when the fall of the Byzantine Empire and the rise of new sea routes gradually reduced their importance. [NDA 2024-I]

There were several routes — both overland and by sea. The overland routes crossed Central Asia through the Pamir mountains. The sea routes connected the ports of western India with the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. [NDA 2024-I]

Besides silk, other important goods also travelled these routes. Chinese pottery and Indian spices were among the most important commodities. [NDA 2024-I]

Feature of the Silk Routes	Correct Fact
Direction of Chinese silk	Westward — toward Central Asia and the Mediterranean [NDA 2024-I]
Period of operation	Before the Christian Era until the 15th century CE [NDA 2024-I]
Types of routes	Several — both overland and by sea [NDA 2024-I]
Other goods traded	Chinese pottery and Indian spices [NDA 2024-I]

IMPORTANT Four Silk Route facts that NDA tested together in one question: (1) Chinese silk moved westward — not east-bound European silk. (2) Routes existed before the Christian Era, lasting until the 15th century CE. (3) There were several routes — both overland and by sea. (4) Chinese pottery and Indian spices were other major commodities. [NDA 2024-I]

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9. Gupta Literature and Learning

The Gupta period produced the greatest flowering of Sanskrit literature in Indian history. Under royal patronage, poets, playwrights, scientists, and philosophers produced works that have endured for over fifteen centuries. This creative explosion is one of the main reasons the Gupta period is called the Golden Age.

Major Literary Figures

Author	Works	Significance
Kalidasa	Abhijnanasakuntalam, Meghaduta, Raghuvamsha, Kumarasambhava	Greatest Sanskrit poet and playwright. One of the Navaratnas of Chandragupta II’s court.
Shudraka	Mrichchhakatika (The Little Clay Cart) [NDA 2023-I]	Important Sanskrit playwright. The Mrichchhakatika is a realistic social drama.
Vishakhadatta	Mudrarakshasa	Sanskrit political drama about Chandragupta Maurya and Chanakya.
Aryabhata	Aryabhatiya	Pioneer mathematician and astronomer. Calculated the value of pi. Proposed that the earth rotates on its axis.
Varahamihira	Brihatsamhita, Panchasiddhantika	Important astronomer and mathematician. One of the Navaratnas.

The author of the Mrichchhakatika was Shudraka — not Kalidasa. [NDA 2023-I] Kalidasa wrote Abhijnanasakuntalam, Meghaduta, Raghuvamsha, and Kumarasambhava. These are different works by a different author.

Nalanda University

Nalanda University was one of the greatest centres of learning in the ancient world. It was located near Rajgir in present-day Bihar. Nalanda began its development as an important monastic and educational centre during the Gupta period. Tradition credits Kumaragupta I with founding or significantly patronising it. It grew into a massive residential university that attracted students and scholars from across Asia: from China, Korea, Japan, Tibet, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia. Harsha was one of Nalanda’s most generous patrons, but he did not found it. Nalanda existed for centuries before Harsha came to power.

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10. Gupta Art and Architecture

The Gupta period gave birth to some of the most beautiful art and architecture in Indian history. Two aspects are particularly important for NDA students: the development of the Nagara style of temple architecture and the cave paintings of Ajanta.

The Nagara Style of Temple Architecture

The Nagara style is the northern Indian style of Hindu temple architecture. It is characterised by a curvilinear tower called the shikhara that rises above the sanctum where the deity is enshrined. The shikhara tapers gradually as it rises and curves inward toward a rounded top. The Nagara style emerged and developed during the Gupta period.

Temple	Location	Significance
Dashavatara Temple	Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh	One of the finest early examples of the Nagara style. Dedicated to Vishnu. Known for its sculpted panels showing the ten avatars of Vishnu.
Bhitargaon Temple	Kanpur district, Uttar Pradesh	One of the earliest surviving brick temples in India. Shows the early development of the Nagara shikhara form.

Ajanta Cave Paintings — Themes

The Ajanta caves are located in the Aurangabad district of present-day Maharashtra. They contain some of the finest paintings in the history of world art. The most important examples date to the Gupta period.

The themes of the Ajanta murals cover three main categories. [NDA 2011-II]

The first category is decorative designs with animals, trees, and flowers. These fill the ceilings and borders of the cave interiors.

The second category is portraits of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. These are among the most serene and beautiful human figures in ancient Indian art.

The third category is narrative scenes portraying Jataka stories — tales of the Buddha’s previous lives, depicted with remarkable detail and emotion.

All three themes are correct and must be remembered together. The themes of Ajanta murals are not limited to Buddhist figures only.

Ajanta Cave Paintings — Technique

The technique used to create the Ajanta paintings was carefully developed to allow painting on the rock surface of the cave walls. [NDA 2024-I]

The first step was to coat the rough rock surface with a layer of clay mixed with rice husk and gum. This created a stable base on the rock. The second step was to apply a smooth lime coat over the clay base. This white lime surface was the actual painting surface. The third step was to draw the outline of the figures and compositions on the lime surface. The fourth step was to fill in the outlines with colours made from natural mineral and vegetable pigments.

The outline was drawn first on the lime coating. Colours were added subsequently. Colours were not applied before the outline.

Step	Action
Step 1	Clay mixed with rice husk and gum applied to rock surface
Step 2	Lime coat applied over the clay base
Step 3	Outline drawn on the lime surface
Step 4	Colours added after the outline

Ajanta and Gandhara — A Critical Distinction

The Ajanta cave paintings belong to a purely Indian artistic tradition. They show no influence from the Gandhara school. [NDA 2012-II]

The Gandhara school developed in the northwest under Kushana patronage and showed strong Greco-Roman influence. Ajanta developed in the Deccan under Indian patronage and drew entirely on Indian artistic traditions. Although both traditions depicted Buddhist subjects, they are completely separate artistically: different regions, different periods, different influences, different mediums.

Feature	Gandhara Art	Ajanta Paintings
Location	Northwestern India (Pakistan/Afghanistan)	Aurangabad, Maharashtra
Period of importance	Kushana period (1st–3rd century CE)	Gupta period and earlier
Artistic influence	Strong Greco-Roman influence	Purely Indian tradition [NDA 2012-II]
Medium	Stone sculpture	Cave wall paintings
Subject	Buddhist figures — first human Buddha images	Buddhist figures, Jataka stories, decorative designs

[Image Suggestion: Side-by-side comparison — a Gandhara Buddhist sculpture with Greco-Roman features alongside an Ajanta cave painting showing its purely Indian artistic style]

★ IMPORTANT Ajanta paintings are a purely Indian artistic tradition with no Gandhara influence. [NDA 2012-II] The three themes of Ajanta murals are: decorative designs, portraits of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, and Jataka narrative scenes. [NDA 2011-II] The painting sequence is: clay base → lime coat → outline → colours. Outline always before colours. [NDA 2024-I]

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11. Hun Invasions and the Decline of the Guptas

The Gupta Empire began to weaken in the second half of the 5th century CE. Several factors contributed: weak rulers after Skandagupta, internal revolts by feudatory chiefs, and economic strain. But the most dramatic external cause was the invasion of the Hunas (Huns) from Central Asia.

Huna Leader	Period	Significance
Toramana	Late 5th century CE	Father. First major Huna ruler to penetrate deep into India. Defeated the Guptas and established Huna control over parts of northwestern India and the Gangetic plains.
Mihirakula	Early 6th century CE	Son of Toramana. Known for fierce rule and persecution of Buddhists. Eventually defeated by Indian kings including Yashodharman of Malwa.

The Huna invasions severely weakened the Gupta Empire. After Skandagupta repelled the first wave of invasions, later Gupta rulers could not maintain the same resistance. The empire fragmented into smaller kingdoms. By the mid-6th century CE, the Gupta Empire had effectively ceased to exist as a unified political entity.

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12. Harshavardhana

After the Guptas, northern India once again broke into competing kingdoms. Then, in the early 7th century CE, a young king from the Pushyabhuti dynasty rose rapidly to power and reunited a large part of northern India under his rule. His name was Harshavardhana, and he was the last great ruler of the ancient period in northern India.

Harsha belonged to the Pushyabhuti dynasty, not the Gupta dynasty. [NDA 2010-II] The Gupta dynasty had already declined before Harsha came to power.

Harsha came to power around 606 CE at the age of sixteen, following the death of his brother Rajyavardhana who was treacherously killed by a rival king. Harsha vowed revenge and launched a series of military campaigns that gradually brought most of northern India under his control. His capital was at Kanauj on the Gangetic plains. [NDA 2010-II]

Military Campaigns

Harsha was an energetic military commander. One of his important early campaigns was the Battle of Pundravardhana. [NDA 2010-II] He campaigned across eastern India, Bengal, and Odisha. However, his ambitions to expand southward were checked by the powerful Chalukya king Pulakeshin II of the Deccan, who defeated Harsha on the banks of the Narmada river. This defeat prevented Harsha from extending his empire into the south.

Harsha as a Writer

Harsha was not only a king but also an accomplished author. He wrote three Sanskrit plays. [NDA 2010-II]

Play	Theme
Ratnavali	A romantic comedy
Priyadarshika	A romantic drama
Nagananda	A Buddhist drama about the self-sacrifice of the Bodhisattva Jimutavahana

Banabhatta and the Harshacharita

The most important literary figure associated with Harsha’s court was Banabhatta — Harsha’s court poet. He wrote two major Sanskrit works.

The Harshacharita (the Life of Harsha) is a biographical account of Harshavardhana. It is one of the most important primary sources for understanding Harsha’s reign. It describes his family background, his rise to power, his military campaigns, and his personal character.

The Kadambari is a famous Sanskrit prose romance, one of the earliest and most celebrated novels in Sanskrit literature. It tells a complex story involving multiple lives and cycles of rebirth.

Xuanzang’s Visit

The Chinese Buddhist monk Xuanzang (also written as Hiuen Tsang) visited India during Harsha’s reign, approximately between 629 and 645 CE. He came to study Buddhism and collect Buddhist texts. He spent many years travelling across India, visiting Buddhist holy sites, studying at Nalanda, and meeting Harsha personally. After returning to China, he wrote a detailed account of his travels called Records of the Travels to Middle India (also known as the Great Tang Records on the Western Regions). [NDA 2022-I]

Fa Hien did not write Records of the Travels to Middle India. The Chinese traveller who wrote this work was Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang). [NDA 2022-I] Fa Hien visited India during Chandragupta II’s reign, approximately two centuries earlier.

Chinese Traveller	Period of Visit	Indian Ruler	Key Work
Fa Hien (Faxian)	Around 399–414 CE	Chandragupta II	Account of Buddhist India and Gupta society
Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang)	Around 629–645 CE	Harshavardhana	Records of the Travels to Middle India [NDA 2022-I]

Harsha’s Patronage of Nalanda

Nalanda University reached its greatest glory during and after Harsha’s reign. Harsha was one of Nalanda’s most generous patrons. He endowed the university with land grants and financial support. Xuanzang studied at Nalanda during his visit and described it as a place of extraordinary learning, with thousands of students and hundreds of teachers studying Buddhist philosophy, logic, grammar, medicine, and mathematics.

Banskhera and Madhuban Inscriptions

Two important inscriptions provide direct evidence about Harsha’s reign: the Banskhera inscription and the Madhuban inscription. Both are copper plate grants issued by Harsha. They contain Harsha’s personal signature and provide information about land grants made during his reign.

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13. Yashovarman of Kannauj

After Harsha’s death around 647 CE, his empire did not survive as a unified state. Northern India once again fragmented. The city of Kanauj, which had been Harsha’s capital, remained an important political prize that successive rulers competed to control. One important ruler who held Kanauj after Harsha was Yashovarman. [NDA 2023-I] Yashovarman was a powerful king who extended his influence across a significant part of northern India in the early 8th century CE.

Yashovarman was the ruler of Kannauj. [NDA 2023-I] He was not associated with Pataliputra or any other northern Indian city.

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