The Delhi Sultanate – NDA History Notes

India in the 7th century CE was a land of competing kingdoms. The Gupta Empire had long since fragmented. The brief unity under Harshavardhana had dissolved. The subcontinent was divided among dozens of regional powers: the Rajput kingdoms of the north and west, the Palas of Bengal, the Rashtrakutas and Chalukyas of the Deccan. Into this fragmented political landscape, from the northwest, came a new force that would change India permanently.

The coming of Islam to India was not a single event. It was a process that unfolded over five centuries, from the first Arab foothold in Sindh in 712 CE to the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 CE and its rule over most of northern India until 1526 CE.

The Delhi Sultanate was the first major Islamic empire in India. It lasted for 320 years and was ruled by five successive dynasties. It transformed India in fundamental ways: introducing new administrative systems, new architectural forms, new literary traditions, and new patterns of trade and urban life. It also created the political and cultural conditions from which the Mughal Empire would eventually emerge.

NDA has tested this chapter on specific topics. The authorship of the Tarikh-i-Alai, the cause of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s token currency failure, Ibn Battuta’s origin and travelogue, his description of the postal system, Abdur Razzaq’s destination (Vijayanagara — not Delhi), the nationality of Jean Baptiste Tavernier (French — not Dutch), Bakhtiyar Khilji’s conquest of Bihar and Bengal, and the identity of Kalila wa Dimna as an Arabic translation of the Panchatantra have all appeared in past papers.

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1. Historical Background — The Coming of Islam to India

The Delhi Sultanate did not appear suddenly. It was the product of nearly five centuries of gradual Muslim expansion into the Indian subcontinent. Three distinct phases brought Islam to India before the Sultanate was formally established.

Phase 1 — The Arab Conquest of Sindh (712 CE)

The first permanent Muslim foothold in India came in 712 CE when an Arab general named Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh, the lower Indus valley in present-day Pakistan. He was sent by the Umayyad Caliph and defeated the local ruler Raja Dahir. The Arab conquest of Sindh introduced Islamic governance, law, and coinage to a part of the subcontinent for the first time. However, the Arabs did not expand beyond Sindh and Multan. Their impact on the rest of India was limited.

Phase 2 — The Ghaznavid Raids (997–1030 CE)

The second phase came with the raids of Mahmud of Ghazni — ruler of the Ghaznavid dynasty based in present-day Afghanistan. Between 997 and 1030 CE, Mahmud raided northwestern India seventeen times. His raids were not aimed at permanent conquest. They were plunder expeditions designed to loot the wealth of Indian temples and cities. The most famous raid was the attack on the Somnath temple in Gujarat in 1025 CE.

Mahmud of Ghazni left no permanent administrative presence in India beyond Punjab. His significance is cultural and psychological rather than institutional. His raids demonstrated the vulnerability of Indian kingdoms to Central Asian military power. He did not establish the Delhi Sultanate.

Phase 3 — The Ghurid Conquest (1192 CE)

The third and decisive phase came with Muhammad of Ghor — ruler of the Ghurid dynasty. Unlike Mahmud, Muhammad of Ghor was interested in permanent conquest. He fought two crucial battles at Tarain in present-day Haryana.

In the First Battle of Tarain (1191 CE), he was defeated by the Rajput king Prithviraj Chauhan. In the Second Battle of Tarain (1192 CE), he returned and decisively defeated Prithviraj Chauhan. This battle opened the entire Gangetic plains to Muslim rule and is one of the most important military events in Indian history.

Bakhtiyar Khilji — Bihar and Bengal

Muhammad of Ghor’s conquests were extended eastward by one of his generals, Bakhtiyar Khilji. He was the first Muslim military commander to conquer Bihar and Bengal, overthrowing the Sena dynasty that had ruled Bengal. [NDA 2009-II]

During his Bihar campaign, Bakhtiyar Khilji destroyed the great Nalanda university, one of the most significant acts of cultural destruction in Indian history. The monks were killed, the library was burned, and the greatest centre of Buddhist learning in the ancient world was reduced to ruins.

When Muhammad of Ghor was assassinated in 1206 CE, his slave general Qutb-ud-din Aibak declared himself Sultan of Delhi. This moment marks the formal beginning of the Delhi Sultanate.

[Image Suggestion: Map showing the three phases of Muslim expansion into India — the Arab conquest of Sindh (712 CE), Mahmud of Ghazni’s raid routes, and Muhammad of Ghor’s conquests leading to the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate]

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2. Overview — The Five Dynasties

The Delhi Sultanate was ruled by five successive dynasties across 320 years. Students must have this framework clearly in mind before studying individual rulers and events.

Dynasty	Period	Key Rulers	Key Feature
Slave (Mamluk)	1206–1290 CE	Qutb-ud-din Aibak, Iltutmish, Razia Sultana, Balban	Founded and consolidated the Sultanate. Iqta system.
Khalji	1290–1320 CE	Jalal-ud-din Khalji, Alauddin Khalji	Military expansion. Market reforms. Repelled Mongols.
Tughlaq	1320–1414 CE	Ghiyasuddin, Muhammad bin Tughlaq, Firoz Shah	Greatest territorial extent. Bold experiments. Timur’s invasion.
Sayyid	1414–1451 CE	Khizr Khan and three others	Reduced territory after Timur. Weak rulers.
Lodi	1451–1526 CE	Bahlul Lodi, Sikandar Lodi, Ibrahim Lodi	Afghan dynasty. Founded Agra. Ended at Panipat.

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3. The Slave Dynasty — 1206 to 1290 CE

The Slave dynasty takes its name from the fact that several of its rulers were slaves or former slaves. The Arabic word for a slave soldier is mamluk, which is why the dynasty is also called the Mamluk dynasty. Being a slave in this context did not mean what the word implies today. Military slaves in the medieval Islamic world were highly trained soldiers and administrators who could rise to positions of enormous power.

Qutb-ud-din Aibak — Founder

Qutb-ud-din Aibak founded the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 CE. He had been a slave of Muhammad of Ghor and rose to become his most trusted general in India. After Muhammad’s death, Aibak declared himself Sultan and made Delhi his capital.

Aibak began two great architectural projects: the Qutb Minar (the tallest minaret in India) and the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque (the first mosque built in Delhi after the Islamic conquest). He also built the Adhai Din ka Jhonpra mosque at Ajmer. He died in 1210 CE after falling from his horse while playing polo.

Iltutmish — The Real Consolidator

Iltutmish is the true builder of the Delhi Sultanate as a functioning state. He was Aibak’s son-in-law and succeeded him in 1211 CE. He shifted the capital from Lahore to Delhi, making it the permanent seat of the Sultanate. He received a letter of investiture from the Caliph of Baghdad, giving his rule formal Islamic legitimacy. He completed the Qutb Minar and built his own Tomb within the Qutb complex.

Most importantly, Iltutmish introduced the Iqta system. An iqta was a revenue-yielding territory assigned to a military officer in lieu of a salary. The officer, called a muqti or wali — collected the revenue from the territory and used it to maintain his troops and serve the Sultan militarily when called upon. The iqta system was the administrative backbone of the Delhi Sultanate.

Iltutmish also introduced new coinage: the silver tanka and the copper jital, which became the standard currencies of the Sultanate.

The Chahalgani

One of the most politically significant features of Iltutmish’s reign was the emergence of the Chahalgani — also called the Turkan-i-Chahalgani (the Forty). This was a group of forty powerful Turkish nobles who had been slaves of Iltutmish and formed an exclusive oligarchy. They wielded enormous political influence and effectively controlled who became Sultan after Iltutmish’s death.

Razia Sultana

Razia Sultana was the daughter of Iltutmish and ruled as Sultan from 1236 to 1240 CE. She was the first female ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. She faced continuous opposition from the Chahalgani nobles and was eventually overthrown and killed.

Balban — The Destroyer of the Chahalgani

Ghiyasuddin Balban ruled from 1266 to 1287 CE and was the most powerful ruler of the later Slave dynasty. He had himself been a member of the Chahalgani before rising to become Sultan. Once in power, he systematically destroyed the power of the Chahalgani, executing, imprisoning, or marginalising its members.

Balban developed an elaborate theory of kingship. He presented the Sultan as the shadow of God on earth, a being of supreme authority whose dignity must never be compromised. He introduced the Persian court rituals of sijda (prostration before the king) and paibos (kissing the king’s feet). His theory of kingship influenced all subsequent Delhi Sultanate rulers.

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4. The Khalji Dynasty — 1290 to 1320 CE

The Khalji dynasty came to power in 1290 CE when Jalal-ud-din Khalji overthrew the last Slave dynasty ruler. The Khaljis were Afghans who had long been settled in India. Their rise to power marked the end of the exclusively Turkish aristocracy that had dominated the Sultanate since its founding.

Alauddin Khalji — The Most Powerful Sultan

Alauddin Khalji was the nephew and son-in-law of Jalal-ud-din Khalji. He murdered his uncle and seized the throne in 1296 CE. He went on to become the most powerful ruler in the history of the Delhi Sultanate, extraordinary as both a military commander and an administrative reformer.

On the military side, he repelled multiple Mongol invasions and launched campaigns that extended Sultanate power to its greatest extent, conquering Gujarat, defeating the Rajput kingdoms of Chittor and Ranthambore, and sending his general Malik Kafur deep into the Deccan to extract tribute from kingdoms as far south as Madurai.

The Alai Darwaza

The Alai Darwaza — built by Alauddin Khalji in 1311 CE, is one of the most important monuments of the Delhi Sultanate. It is the southern gateway to the Qutb Minar complex. It is one of the first structures in the Delhi region to use the true arch and a proper dome, marking a major development in Indo-Islamic architecture.

Alauddin also began the construction of the Alai Minar — intended to be twice the height of the Qutb Minar. The foundation and first storey were completed but the project was abandoned after Alauddin’s death in 1316 CE.

Market Reforms

Alauddin Khalji’s most famous administrative achievement was his system of market control. He established four separate markets in Delhi, each regulating a specific category of goods.

Market	Goods Regulated
Shahana-i-Mandi	Grain — wheat, rice, and other food grains
Sarai Adl	Cloth — cotton and silk textiles
Horse market	Horses — essential for the military
Cattle and slave market	Cattle and slaves

Each market was overseen by a shahna (market superintendent) who enforced strict price controls. Informers called barids reported on market conditions to the Sultan directly.

Revenue Reforms

Alauddin reformed the revenue system through the masahat system — the measurement of agricultural land to calculate tax on the actual area cultivated rather than on estimates. He fixed the kharaj (land revenue) at 50% of the produce — a very high rate enforced with strict control.

Amir Khusrau — Tuti-i-Hind

The greatest literary figure associated with Alauddin Khalji’s court was Amir Khusrau. He is known by the title Tuti-i-Hind — meaning the Parrot of India — recognising him as the most gifted literary voice of the subcontinent.

His important works include the Tarikh-i-Alai — which contains detailed information about the first few years of Alauddin Khalji’s reign. [NDA 2009-I] He also wrote the Khazain-ul-Futuh (Treasures of Victory) covering Alauddin’s military campaigns, and the Tughlaqnama covering Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq’s accession. Amir Khusrau is also credited with contributing to the development of the Khayal style of Hindustani classical music and with pioneering the Urdu literary tradition.

The Tarikh-i-Alai was written by Amir Khusrau — not by Ziauddin Barani. [NDA 2009-I]

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5. The Tughlaq Dynasty — 1320 to 1414 CE

The Tughlaq dynasty came to power in 1320 CE when Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq seized the throne. The Tughlaqs ruled for nearly a century (the longest of any Delhi Sultanate dynasty) and under them the Sultanate reached its greatest territorial extent. They are also famous for the bold and often disastrous experiments of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq was the founder of the dynasty. He built Tughlaqabad, the third of the seven cities of Delhi, a massive fortified city whose walls were among the most imposing in the medieval world. He died in 1325 CE when a pavilion built for his welcome reportedly collapsed.

Muhammad bin Tughlaq — The Controversial Sultan

Muhammad bin Tughlaq (ruled 1325–1351 CE) is the most intellectually fascinating and most controversial ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. He was highly educated, knowledgeable in philosophy and science, and ambitious in his plans. But his experiments were poorly implemented and often catastrophic in their consequences.

The Transfer of the Capital

Muhammad bin Tughlaq decided to shift the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (present-day Devagiri in Maharashtra) in 1327 CE. His reasoning was logical: Daulatabad was more centrally located within his expanded empire and was safer from Mongol attacks. But the execution was disastrous. The entire population of Delhi was forced to march nearly 1,500 kilometres to the new capital. Many died on the way. Within a few years, Muhammad reversed the decision and the capital returned to Delhi. The experiment had caused enormous suffering for no lasting benefit.

The Token Currency Experiment

In 1329 CE, Muhammad bin Tughlaq introduced token currency — replacing the silver tanka with bronze or copper coins that were assigned the same value as the silver coins they replaced. The idea was economically sound in theory. But the experiment failed because the government did not control the supply of bronze adequately. Large numbers of spurious (fake) coins were minted by ordinary people and accepted in the market. The bronze coins flooded the market and became worthless. The government was forced to withdraw the token currency and redeem the bronze coins with silver, at enormous cost to the treasury. [NDA 2012-I]

The token currency experiment failed because of large-scale minting of spurious (fake) coins — not because of lack of confidence, Mongol invasion, or treasury shortages. [NDA 2012-I]

The Doab Tax and the Diwan-i-Kohi

Muhammad bin Tughlaq increased taxes in the Doab region (the fertile land between the Ganges and Yamuna rivers) at a time when a famine was occurring, causing widespread peasant revolts. He tried to address the agricultural crisis by creating a new department called the Diwan-i-Kohi — an agricultural department designed to bring more land under cultivation. The scheme was poorly administered and expensive, and it largely failed.

Muhammad bin Tughlaq also built Jahanpanah, the fourth of the seven cities of Delhi, to enclose and protect the combined area of the earlier cities. The name means Refuge of the World.

IMPORTANT: Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s token currency experiment failed because of large-scale minting of spurious (fake) coins by the public. The government lost control of the money supply. This is the specific tested cause, not lack of public confidence, not the Mongol invasion, not a treasury shortage. [NDA 2012-I]

Ibn Battuta and the Rihla

The most important external source for the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq is the Rihla — the travel account of the Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta. [NDA 2017-II]

Ibn Battuta came from Morocco in North Africa. [NDA 2018-I] He was one of the greatest travellers of the medieval world, travelling an estimated 75,000 miles across Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, India, Southeast Asia, and China. He arrived in India during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq and served as a qazi (judge) at the Sultan’s court for several years. His account, the Rihla, is an invaluable source for understanding social, political, and administrative conditions under Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

Ibn Battuta’s Description of the Postal System

One of the most fascinating sections of the Rihla is Ibn Battuta’s description of India’s postal system under Muhammad bin Tughlaq. NDA has tested this description directly. [NDA 2024-I]

The postal system had two components. The horse post — called the uluq — consisted of horses stationed at post houses approximately every four miles along the major routes. The foot post, carried by runners, used a different method. The foot post runners carried a ringing bell to announce their approach so that the next runner could be ready. Remarkably, Ibn Battuta states that the foot post was quicker than the horse post for carrying messages, because the runners worked in short relays and could maintain speed without stopping to change horses.

Postal Feature	Detail
Horse post name	Uluq [NDA 2024-I]
Horse post stations	Every four miles [NDA 2024-I]
Foot post signal	A ringing bell carried by the runner [NDA 2024-I]
Speed comparison	The foot post was quicker than the horse post [NDA 2024-I]

Firoz Shah Tughlaq

Firoz Shah Tughlaq (ruled 1351–1388 CE) was a very different ruler from his predecessor. Where Muhammad bin Tughlaq had been bold and experimental, Firoz Shah was cautious and welfare-oriented. He undertook extensive public works, including building canals to bring water to agricultural land, constructing hospitals, establishing free dispensaries, and planting fruit gardens.

He created the Diwan-i-Khairat — a special department for charity and welfare, to provide financial assistance to the poor.

He built Firozabad, the fifth of the seven cities of Delhi, on the banks of the Yamuna river. Today this site is known as Firoz Shah Kotla.

Firoz Shah was also religiously orthodox. He imposed the jizya (a tax on non-Muslims) more strictly than his predecessors.

The Tughlaq dynasty declined rapidly after Firoz Shah’s death. The invasion of Timur (Tamerlane) in 1398 CE devastated Delhi, massacred its population, and reduced the Sultanate to a shadow of its former self.

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6. The Sayyid and Lodi Dynasties

The Sayyid Dynasty — 1414 to 1451 CE

After Timur’s invasion, the Delhi Sultanate was a greatly weakened state. The Sayyid dynasty — founded by Khizr Khan, who had been Timur’s governor of Punjab, ruled a much-reduced territory for about four decades. The Sayyids produced no major military, administrative, or cultural achievements of significance. The dynasty ended when Bahlul Lodi was invited to take the throne in 1451 CE.

The Lodi Dynasty — 1451 to 1526 CE

The Lodi dynasty was the only Afghan dynasty to rule the Delhi Sultanate. Three rulers are important.

Bahlul Lodi (1451–1489 CE) was the founder. He restored some degree of Sultanate authority and expanded the territory under Delhi’s control.

Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517 CE) was the most capable Lodi ruler. He was an efficient administrator and a patron of learning. He founded the city of Agra in 1504 CE, which would later become one of the most important cities of the Mughal Empire.

Ibrahim Lodi (1517–1526 CE) was the last Delhi Sultanate ruler. He was an inflexible ruler who alienated his Afghan nobles. One of his disaffected governors, Daulat Khan Lodi, invited the Central Asian ruler Babur to invade India. At the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 CE, Babur defeated and killed Ibrahim Lodi. The Delhi Sultanate ended and the Mughal Empire began.

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7. Administration of the Delhi Sultanate

The Delhi Sultanate developed a sophisticated administrative structure drawing on both Islamic governance traditions and existing Indian administrative practices.

The Theory of Kingship

The Sultan was theoretically the representative of the Caliph, the supreme head of the Islamic world. In practice, the Sultans of Delhi exercised fully independent power. Balban’s theory of the Sultan as the shadow of God on earth elevated the dignity of the sultanate to a sacred level, and this theory influenced all subsequent rulers.

The Iqta System

The iqta system was the central administrative mechanism of the Delhi Sultanate. Revenue-yielding territories (iqtas) were assigned to military officers (muqtis or walis) in lieu of salary. The muqti collected revenue, maintained order, and provided military service. The Sultan could reassign iqtas. This kept nobles dependent on royal favour and prevented the development of hereditary noble estates.

Central Departments

Department	Function
Diwan-i-Wizarat	Finance department. Headed by the wazir (prime minister).
Diwan-i-Ariz	Military department. Recruitment, equipment, and maintenance of the army.
Diwan-i-Insha	Department of correspondence. Royal letters and proclamations.
Diwan-i-Rasalat	Foreign affairs and religious matters.
Diwan-i-Kohi	Agricultural department (created by Muhammad bin Tughlaq).
Diwan-i-Khairat	Charity and welfare department (created by Firoz Shah Tughlaq).

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8. Economy and Market Reforms

The Delhi Sultanate’s economy was based primarily on agriculture. The main source of state revenue was the kharaj, the land revenue tax, set at 50% of the produce under Alauddin Khalji and enforced through the masahat system of land measurement.

Alauddin’s market control system was the most ambitious economic experiment of the Sultanate period. By fixing prices for grain, cloth, horses, and cattle, he maintained a large army at relatively low cost. The system worked effectively during his reign because of strict enforcement but could not be sustained after his death.

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9. Architecture of the Delhi Sultanate

The Delhi Sultanate created a new architectural tradition in India by combining Islamic structural techniques with Indian craftsmanship and decorative traditions. This tradition is called Indo-Islamic architecture.

Corbelled Arch vs True Arch

The most important technical distinction in this period is between the corbelled arch and the true arch.

Feature	Corbelled Arch	True Arch
Origin	Indian tradition	Islamic tradition
Technique	Overlapping stones progressively projecting inward — not a structural arch	Wedge-shaped stones (voussoirs) transferring weight sideways to the supports
Structural principle	Does NOT transfer weight to the sides	DOES transfer weight to the sides — allowing wider spans
First major Delhi example	Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque (early Sultanate period)	Alai Darwaza (built by Alauddin Khalji, 1311 CE)

Key Monuments of the Delhi Sultanate

Monument	Builder	Significance
Qutb Minar	Begun by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, completed by Iltutmish	Tallest minaret in India. UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque	Qutb-ud-din Aibak	First mosque built in Delhi after the Islamic conquest.
Adhai Din ka Jhonpra	Qutb-ud-din Aibak	Mosque at Ajmer. Built using material from demolished temples.
Tomb of Iltutmish	Iltutmish	One of the earliest surviving Delhi Sultanate tombs. Within the Qutb complex.
Alai Darwaza	Alauddin Khalji (1311 CE)	First true arch and dome in the Delhi region.
Alai Minar (incomplete)	Begun by Alauddin Khalji	Intended to be twice the height of the Qutb Minar. Left incomplete.
Tughlaqabad Fort	Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq	Massive fortified city. Third city of Delhi.
Firoz Shah Kotla	Firoz Shah Tughlaq	Fifth city of Delhi. Also called Firozabad.

The Seven Cities of Delhi

City	Builder	Period
Qila Rai Pithora	Prithviraj Chauhan (pre-Sultanate)	12th century CE
Siri	Alauddin Khalji	Early 14th century CE
Tughlaqabad	Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq	Early 14th century CE
Jahanpanah	Muhammad bin Tughlaq	Mid-14th century CE
Firozabad (Firoz Shah Kotla)	Firoz Shah Tughlaq	Mid-14th century CE
Dinpanah / Shergarh	Humayun / Sher Shah Suri	16th century CE
Shahjahanabad	Shah Jahan	17th century CE

[Image Suggestion: Map of Delhi showing the locations of the seven historic cities — from Qila Rai Pithora through Shahjahanabad — with each city’s builder and period labelled]

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10. Literary Sources and Travellers

The literary sources for the Delhi Sultanate period are among the richest of any era in Indian history. Persian and Arabic were the languages of court, administration, and scholarship.

Amir Khusrau — Tuti-i-Hind

Amir Khusrau (1253–1325 CE) was the greatest literary figure of the Delhi Sultanate. His title Tuti-i-Hind means the Parrot of India. He wrote in Persian and is considered one of the great poets of the Persian literary tradition.

Work	Content
Tarikh-i-Alai	Details of the early years of Alauddin Khalji’s reign [NDA 2009-I]
Khazain-ul-Futuh	Account of Alauddin Khalji’s military campaigns
Tughlaqnama	Account of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq’s accession

Ziauddin Barani

Ziauddin Barani was an important historian who served at the court of Muhammad bin Tughlaq. He wrote the Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi — a history of the Delhi Sultanate from Balban to the early years of Firoz Shah Tughlaq — and the Fatwa-i-Jahandari — a political treatise on governance and kingship.

Kalila wa Dimna

Kalila wa Dimna is an Arabic translation of the ancient Indian collection of animal fables called the Panchatantra. [NDA 2022-II] The Panchatantra was originally composed in Sanskrit, then translated into Persian, and from Persian into Arabic as Kalila wa Dimna. Through these translations, the stories of the Panchatantra spread across the Islamic world and eventually into medieval European literature.

Kalila wa Dimna is not an original Arabic text. It is an Arabic translation of the Panchatantra. [NDA 2022-II]

Travellers to India During the Sultanate Period

Traveller	Origin	Period	Work	NDA Relevance
Ibn Battuta	Morocco [NDA 2018-I]	Visited during Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign	Rihla [NDA 2017-II]	Describes India’s postal system. Foot post quicker than horse post. Uluq = horse post stationed every four miles. [NDA 2024-I]
Abdur Razzaq	Persia	1443 CE	Persian account of his travels	Visited Vijayanagara during Devaraya II’s reign — NOT Delhi or Daulatabad [NDA 2015-II]
Jean Baptiste Tavernier	France [NDA 2019-II]	17th century (Mughal period)	Travels in India	French — NOT Dutch [NDA 2019-II]
Francois Bernier	France	17th century (Mughal period)	Travels in the Mogul Empire	Argued there was no private property in land in Mughal India

★ IMPORTANT Three traveller traps that NDA has tested: (1) Abdur Razzaq visited Vijayanagara — NOT Delhi or Daulatabad. [NDA 2015-II] (2) Ibn Battuta came from Morocco — NOT Turkey or Arabia. [NDA 2018-I] (3) Jean Baptiste Tavernier was French — NOT Dutch. [NDA 2019-II]

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