The Maratha Empire – NDA History Notes

In the mid-17th century, a young Maratha chieftain began capturing forts in the hills of the western Deccan. Within three decades, he had built a state that would outlast the Mughal Empire and eventually control more of India than any power since Ashoka. His name was Shivaji Maharaj, and the state he built, the Maratha Empire, was the last great indigenous empire of pre-British India.

The Marathas came from the Deccan plateau, the rugged highland region of central and western India. The terrain shaped the people. A land of hills, forests, and plateaus does not produce the kind of conventional cavalry armies that fought on the plains of northern India. It produces warriors who know how to move fast, strike hard, disappear into the landscape, and fight an enemy ten times their size by refusing to fight on his terms. Shivaji understood this completely. He built his empire not through pitched battles but through speed, intelligence, and relentless pressure, a style of warfare the Marathas called ganimi kava.

After Shivaji’s death in 1680 CE, the Maratha state he had built survived, through Mughal pressure, internal succession disputes, and the devastating defeat at the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 CE. Real power gradually shifted from the Chhatrapati (the king) to the Peshwas — the prime ministers who became the effective rulers of a loose Maratha Confederacy that at its peak dominated all of northern and central India. That confederacy was eventually dismantled by the British through three Anglo-Maratha Wars.

NDA has tested this chapter on specific facts. The chauth and sardeshmukhi revenue system, the First Anglo-Maratha War and the Treaty of Salbai, the Third Battle of Panipat and Ahmad Shah Abdali, the Peshwas and Baji Rao I, the Treaty of Deogaon and Cuttack, and Lachit Borphukan at the Battle of Saraighat have all appeared in past papers.

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1. Historical Background — The Rise of the Marathas

The Marathas were the people of the Deccan plateau — the vast highland region of central and western India, covering present-day Maharashtra, parts of Karnataka, and Madhya Pradesh. The plateau was not rich agricultural land. It was rugged, hilly, and cut by deep river valleys. But this terrain gave the Marathas a military advantage that plains warriors could never match. They knew every ridge, every pass, and every fort in the landscape. They moved fast on small, tough horses. They struck and withdrew before larger armies could respond. This was the military culture from which Shivaji built an empire.

The Bhakti movement gave the Marathas their cultural identity. The Varkari saints, Namdev, Eknath, and Tukaram, had created a shared devotional tradition in Marathi that crossed caste lines and bound the Maratha people together. The saint-philosopher Samarth Ramdas was closely associated with Shivaji himself. His text the Dasbodh, a guide to practical philosophy, statecraft, and moral conduct, provided an intellectual and spiritual framework for Maratha political life.

Politically, the Deccan in the early 17th century was divided among the Deccan Sultanates, Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, and Golconda, and was increasingly under pressure from the Mughal Empire to the north. Local administrative officials — Deshpandes, Deshmukhs, and Patils — provided the social infrastructure from which Maratha military and political power would emerge. Shivaji’s family were themselves Deshmukhs, local revenue officials under the Bijapur Sultanate.

[Image Suggestion: Map of the Maratha Empire at its greatest extent under the Peshwas, showing territorial spread across central and northern India, with key cities of the Maratha Confederacy marked]

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2. Shivaji — The Founder of the Maratha State

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj is one of the greatest figures in Indian history. He was born in 1627 CE (some sources give 1630 CE) at Shivneri fort in present-day Maharashtra. His mother Jijabai was a woman of remarkable strength and character who instilled in him from childhood a sense of pride in his Maratha heritage and a commitment to establishing an independent Hindu kingdom. His early tutor and guardian Dadaji Kondadeva provided practical administrative training.

Key Events in Shivaji’s Life

Year	Event
1646 CE	Captured Torna fort — his first territorial conquest at age 16/19
1659 CE	Killed Bijapur general Afzal Khan at Pratapgad fort — a turning point in Maratha-Bijapur relations
1664 CE	Sacked the wealthy Mughal port of Surat — gained enormous wealth and alarmed the Mughal court
1665 CE	Treaty of Purandar with Mughal general Jai Singh — surrendered 23 forts, retained 12 forts
1666 CE	Visited Aurangzeb’s court at Agra — placed under house arrest — escaped in baskets of sweets
1674 CE	Coronation at Raigad — crowned Chhatrapati by the Brahmin scholar Gaga Bhatt from Varanasi
1680 CE	Death at Raigad

The killing of Afzal Khan at Pratapgad in 1659 CE was particularly significant. Afzal Khan was sent by Bijapur to negotiate with, and assassinate, Shivaji. But Shivaji turned the tables. He went to the meeting concealed in armour, with a concealed weapon called a wagh nakh (tiger claws). When Afzal Khan attacked, Shivaji killed him. This episode established Shivaji’s reputation for courage and cunning across the Deccan.

The Treaty of Purandar (1665 CE) was a setback — Shivaji was forced to surrender 23 of his forts to the Mughal general Jai Singh. But the visit to Aurangzeb’s court the following year, and the dramatic escape from house arrest hidden in baskets of fruit and sweets, restored his prestige and demonstrated his resourcefulness. The coronation at Raigad in 1674 CE — conducted with full Vedic ceremonies by Gaga Bhatt — gave Shivaji formal political legitimacy as an independent Hindu sovereign.

Students sometimes reverse the Purandar numbers. Shivaji surrendered 23 forts and retained 12 forts — not the other way around.

Timeline of the Maratha Empire

1627/1630 CE  →  Shivaji born at Shivneri fort
1646 CE       →  Torna fort — first conquest
1659 CE       →  Afzal Khan killed at Pratapgad
1664 CE       →  Surat sacked
1665 CE       →  Treaty of Purandar — 23 forts surrendered, 12 retained
1666 CE       →  Agra house arrest — escape in baskets
1674 CE       →  Coronation at Raigad — Chhatrapati
1680 CE       →  Shivaji dies at Raigad
1689 CE       →  Sambhaji captured and executed by Aurangzeb
1707 CE       →  Aurangzeb dies — Shahu released from Mughal captivity
1713 CE       →  Balaji Vishwanath becomes Peshwa
1720 CE       →  Baji Rao I becomes Peshwa — greatest Peshwa, never lost a battle
1740 CE       →  Baji Rao I dies
1761 CE       →  Third Battle of Panipat — Marathas defeated by Ahmad Shah Abdali
1775 CE       →  First Anglo-Maratha War begins
1782 CE       →  Treaty of Salbai — First War ends [NDA 2012-II]
1802 CE       →  Treaty of Bassein — Peshwa accepts British protection
1803 CE       →  Treaty of Deogaon — British gain Cuttack [NDA 2022-II]
1817 CE       →  Third Anglo-Maratha War begins
1818 CE       →  Peshwaship abolished — Maratha Confederacy ends

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3. Revenue System — Chauth and Sardeshmukhi

Shivaji’s revenue system was one of the most creative aspects of his state-building. He collected revenue not only from the territories he directly controlled but also from territories he did not govern, through two distinctive levies. [NDA 2012-I]

Chauth

The Chauth was a levy of one-fourth (one-quarter, or 25%) of the revenue of a territory that Shivaji did not directly control. [NDA 2012-I] It was essentially a protection payment. A territory that paid chauth was guaranteed that the Marathas would not raid it and would protect it from other enemies. A territory that refused to pay would be raided.

The name comes from the Marathi word for one-fourth.

Sardeshmukhi

The Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of one-tenth (10%) of the revenue of the same territories. [NDA 2012-I] Shivaji claimed this as the hereditary right of the Sardeshmukh — the chief headman or overlord — of Maharashtra. This was a more specifically political claim — it asserted Shivaji’s right to collect this levy not as a military protection fee but as the recognised traditional overlord of the Maratha people.

Together, chauth and sardeshmukhi gave the Maratha state significant income from territories far beyond its direct administrative control, effectively extending Maratha financial power across a large part of the Deccan and eventually into northern India.

★ IMPORTANT Chauth and sardeshmukhi are the most directly tested facts in this chapter. Chauth = one-fourth (25%) of revenue from non-Maratha territories. Sardeshmukhi = one-tenth (10%) additional levy. [NDA 2012-I] These percentages are frequently reversed by students. Chauth is the larger amount. Sardeshmukhi is the smaller additional levy.

Term	Meaning	Percentage
Chauth	Levy from non-Maratha territories for protection	One-fourth (25%) [NDA 2012-I]
Sardeshmukhi	Additional levy claimed as hereditary right of Sardeshmukh	One-tenth (10%) [NDA 2012-I]

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4. Shivaji’s Administration — The Ashtapradhan

Shivaji created a council of eight ministers called the Ashtapradhan (eight ministers) to assist in the governance of his state.

Position	Title	Function
Prime Minister	Peshwa	Overall administration. Head of the council.
Finance Minister	Amatya (Mazumdar)	Revenue, accounts, and finance
Foreign Affairs	Sumant (Dabir)	Diplomacy and foreign correspondence
Religious Affairs	Panditrao	Charities, religious grants, and matters
Home Affairs	Mantri (Waqe-navis)	Daily royal affairs and intelligence
Military	Senapati (Sar-i-Naubat)	Army command and military organisation
Legal / Justice	Nyayadhish	Legal matters, courts, and justice
Correspondence	Sachiv (Shuru-navis)	Royal correspondence and records

The Peshwa — the prime minister — was the most important position in the Ashtapradhan. This would prove to be historically significant. After Shivaji’s death, the Peshwas gradually accumulated power until they became the effective rulers of the entire Maratha Confederacy, far more powerful than the nominal Chhatrapatis they served.

Fort System

Shivaji maintained over 300 forts across Maharashtra and the Konkan coast. Forts were the backbone of Maratha military strategy, not cities or open-field battles. He organised his forts into three types. Hill forts (Giri durg) on mountain peaks — including Raigad, Pratapgad, and Torna. Sea forts (Jal durg) on islands and coastal outcroppings — including Sindhudurg and Vijaydurg. Forest forts (Van durg) in dense forest terrain for concealment and strategic positioning.

Shivaji also built a navy to protect the Konkan coast from Portuguese and Siddi power. After Shivaji, the most important naval figure was Kanhoji Angre — the Sarkhel (Admiral) who dominated the western Indian Ocean in the early 18th century.

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5. The Peshwas — Rise to Power

After Shivaji’s death in 1680 CE, the Maratha state faced serious challenges. His elder son Sambhaji was captured and executed by Aurangzeb in 1689 CE. His younger son Rajaram continued resistance until his death in 1700 CE. After Rajaram’s death, his wife Tarabai took charge and led remarkably effective Maratha resistance against Aurangzeb’s massive Deccan campaigns — keeping the Maratha flame alive, even as Aurangzeb personally led his armies across the Deccan.

When Aurangzeb died in 1707 CE, his successor released Shahu — Sambhaji’s son who had been held captive by the Mughals since 1689 CE. Shahu returned to Maharashtra and claimed the Chhatrapati title. A succession dispute between Shahu and Tarabai followed. Shahu eventually prevailed. But in doing so, he became increasingly dependent on his Peshwa to manage the complexities of Maratha politics. The Peshwas used this dependence to accumulate power.

The Peshwas were the prime ministers of the Maratha Empire — drawn from the Chitpavan Brahmin community. Over time they transformed from ministers into the effective rulers of the Maratha Confederacy. [NDA 2016-I] The Peshwa office became hereditary, passing from father to son within the Bhat family, giving the Peshwas the stability of a ruling dynasty even though they remained technically ministers.

The Peshwas did not found the Maratha state. Shivaji founded it. The Peshwas became its effective hereditary rulers later — transforming from ministers into the dominant political authority of the Maratha Confederacy. [NDA 2016-I]

Peshwa	Period	Key Achievement
Balaji Vishwanath	1713–1720 CE	First major Peshwa. Consolidated Peshwa authority.
Baji Rao I	1720–1740 CE	Greatest Peshwa. Never lost a battle. Expanded Maratha power dramatically northward. [NDA 2016-I]
Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb)	1740–1761 CE	Peshwa at the time of Third Battle of Panipat.

Baji Rao I deserves special attention. [NDA 2016-I] He was one of the most gifted military commanders in Indian history and is said to have never lost a battle throughout his entire career. Under his leadership, Maratha armies swept northward, through Malwa, Rajputana, and the Gangetic plains, threatening Delhi itself. Under Baji Rao I, the Maratha Confederacy transformed from a regional Deccan power into a pan-Indian force.

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6. The Third Battle of Panipat — 1761 CE

The most catastrophic defeat in Maratha history took place at Panipat on 14 January 1761 CE. [NDA 2014-II]

By 1761 CE, the Marathas had extended their power across northern India and were the dominant political force in the subcontinent. But this expansion had made powerful enemies. Ahmad Shah Abdali (also called Ahmad Shah Durrani) — the ruler of Afghanistan — had been invited to India by those who feared Maratha dominance. He led a large Afghan army into India and the two forces met at Panipat, the same battlefield where Babur had defeated the Delhi Sultanate in 1526 CE and where Akbar’s forces had fought in 1556 CE.

The Maratha forces were commanded by Sadashivrao Bhau — the Peshwa’s cousin — and Vishwasrao — the Peshwa’s son. The Maratha artillery was under Ibrahim Khan Gardi — a skilled artillery commander.

The battle was a decisive Maratha defeat. [NDA 2014-II] Both Sadashivrao Bhau and Vishwasrao were killed. Ibrahim Khan Gardi was captured and executed. The Maratha army suffered enormous casualties. The defeat shocked the Maratha world and checked their northward expansion permanently.

Baji Rao I did not fight at the Third Battle of Panipat — he had died in 1740 CE, twenty-one years before the battle.

Feature	Detail
Date	14 January 1761 CE [NDA 2014-II]
Maratha commanders	Sadashivrao Bhau and Vishwasrao — both killed
Afghan commander	Ahmad Shah Abdali [NDA 2014-II]
Artillery commander	Ibrahim Khan Gardi — captured and executed
Outcome	Marathas decisively defeated [NDA 2014-II]

Battle	Year	Between	Outcome
First	1526 CE	Babur vs Ibrahim Lodi	Mughal Empire founded
Second	1556 CE	Akbar vs Hemu	Mughal control of Delhi restored
Third	1761 CE	Marathas vs Ahmad Shah Abdali	Marathas decisively defeated [NDA 2014-II]

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7. The Three Anglo-Maratha Wars

The Maratha Confederacy’s final century was defined by its struggle against the expanding British East India Company. Three Anglo-Maratha Wars marked the stages of British conquest.

First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–1782 CE)

The First Anglo-Maratha War ended with the Treaty of Salbai in 1782 CE. [NDA 2012-II] The treaty largely restored the pre-war territorial situation. Neither side gained significantly. The British agreed to support Madhavrao Narayan as Peshwa and the Marathas agreed to recognise British territorial holdings.

The Treaty of Bassein (1802 CE)

The Treaty of Bassein (1802 CE) was signed between the Peshwa Baji Rao II and the British East India Company. By this treaty, the Peshwa accepted British protection and agreed to receive a British Resident at his court. This made the Peshwa a subsidiary ally of the British, effectively subordinating Maratha political authority to British oversight. The other Maratha chiefs, the Scindias, Holkars, and Bhonsles, refused to accept this subordination, which directly triggered the Second Anglo-Maratha War.

The Treaty of Bassein was not a peace treaty ending a war. It preceded and triggered the Second Anglo-Maratha War.

Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–1805 CE)

The Second Anglo-Maratha War ended with several treaties. The most important for NDA is the Treaty of Deogaon (1803 CE) — signed with the Bhonsle chief — by which the British gained Cuttack (Orissa). [NDA 2022-II]

The Treaty of Deogaon came from the Second Anglo-Maratha War — not the First. The Treaty of Salbai ended the First War. The Treaty of Deogaon ended the Second War. [NDA 2012-II, NDA 2022-II]

Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818 CE)

The Third Anglo-Maratha War ended with the complete defeat of the Maratha Confederacy. The Peshwaship was abolished. The last Peshwa, Baji Rao II, was pensioned off and sent to Bithur near Kanpur. The British took control of the former Peshwa’s territories. The individual Maratha chiefs continued as princely states under British paramountcy.

War	Years	Treaty / Outcome	NDA Tag
First Anglo-Maratha War	1775–1782 CE	Treaty of Salbai	[NDA 2012-II]
Second Anglo-Maratha War	1803–1805 CE	Treaty of Deogaon — British gained Cuttack (Orissa)	[NDA 2022-II]
Third Anglo-Maratha War	1817–1818 CE	Peshwaship abolished. Complete Maratha defeat.	—

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8. The Maratha Confederacy

After Baji Rao I, the Maratha political system became a confederacy — a loose alliance of semi-independent chiefs who acknowledged the Peshwa’s nominal leadership but exercised considerable independent authority.

Chief	Family	Capital
Peshwa	Bhat family	Pune
Scindias (Shinde)	Ranoji Scindia’s family	Gwalior
Holkars	Malhar Rao Holkar’s family	Indore
Bhonsles of Nagpur	Separate Bhonsle branch	Nagpur
Gaekwads (Gaikwad)	Damaji Gaekwad’s family	Baroda (Vadodara)

Students sometimes confuse Scindias and Holkars. Scindias = Gwalior. Holkars = Indore. Not the other way around.

[Image Suggestion: Map of the Maratha Confederacy showing the territories of the five chief houses — Peshwa at Pune, Scindias at Gwalior, Holkars at Indore, Bhonsles at Nagpur, and Gaekwads at Baroda — illustrating the confederate structure of the Maratha political system]

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9. Lachit Borphukan — Cross-Chapter Reference

While the Marathas were challenging Mughal power in the west and south, a remarkable military victory against the Mughals was also taking place in the far northeast.

Lachit Borphukan was the military commander of the Ahom kingdom of Assam. In 1671 CE, he led the Ahom forces against a large Mughal army at the Battle of Saraighat on the Brahmaputra river. Despite being significantly outnumbered, Lachit Borphukan used the geography of the river and the skills of his river fleet to defeat the Mughal forces decisively. [NDA 2023-I] The Battle of Saraighat ended the Mughal attempt to permanently subjugate Assam and secured Ahom independence for another century.

Lachit Borphukan is celebrated as one of the greatest military commanders in Indian history. He is the national hero of Assam and is remembered for his personal courage, famously dismissing his own uncle from command when the uncle failed to build defensive structures with sufficient urgency, saying that his uncle was not greater than his country. Lachit Borphukan was not a Maratha commander. Lachit Borphukan was an Ahom military commander who defeated the Mughal forces at the Battle of Saraighat in 1671 CE. [NDA 2023-I]

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